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Dynasty

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Family photograph of the Imperial House of Japan, the world's oldest continuous royal dynasty since at least the 5th century, with three generations (from left): Empress Michiko, Emperor Akihito, their son Emperor Naruhito and his consort Empress Masako, Crown Prince Akishino and Crown Princess Akishino, and behind them their children (2021)

A dynasty is a sequence of rulers from the same family.[1] The term is typically used in the context of a monarchical system, but sometimes also appearing in republics.[2][3] A "house" refers to a ruling royal or noble family.[4]

Terminology

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The word "dynasty" (from the Greek: δυναστεία, dynasteía "power", "lordship", from dynástes "ruler")[5] The Ancient Greek dynasteia referred to sovereignty in general, and was used to describe the rule of various petty rulers. Aristotle used it to refer to an oligarchical regime ruled by the best families. The historian Manetho used the term to refer to a series of kings.[6]

The dynastic family or lineage may be known as a "noble house",[7] which may be styled as "imperial", "royal", "princely", "ducal", "comital" or "baronial", depending upon the chief or present title borne by its members, but it is more often referred by adding the name afterwards, as in "House of Habsburg".

Dynast

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The Spanish royal family of the House of Bourbon dates its roots to the Capetian dynasty of the 9th century, thus making it the oldest still reigning dynasty in Europe (photograph of King Felipe VI, Queen Letizia, the Princess of Asturias and her younger sister Infanta Sofía, in 2019)

A ruler from a dynasty is sometimes referred to as a "dynast", but this term is also used to describe any member of a reigning family who retains a right to succeed to a throne.[8]

The German aristocrat Prince Ernst August of Hanover, a male-line descendant of King George III, possesses no legal British name, titles or styles (although he is entitled to reclaim the former royal dukedom of Cumberland). He was born in the line of succession to the British throne and was bound by Britain's Royal Marriages Act 1772 until it was repealed when the Succession to the Crown Act 2013 took effect on 26 March 2015.[9] Thus, he requested and obtained formal permission from Queen Elizabeth II to marry the Roman Catholic Princess Caroline of Monaco in 1999. Yet, a clause of the English Act of Settlement 1701 remained in effect at that time, stipulating that dynasts who marry Roman Catholics are considered "dead" for succession to the British throne.[10] That exclusion, too, ceased to apply on 26 March 2015, with retroactive effect for those who had been dynasts before triggering it by marriage to a Roman Catholic.[9]

Dynastic marriage

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Family portrait of Empress Maria Theresa of the Habsburg dynasty, surrounded by her children who were married into various European dynasties. Marriage policy amongst dynasties led to the Pax Austriaca.

A "dynastic marriage" is one that complies with monarchical house law restrictions, so that the descendants are eligible to inherit the throne or other royal privileges.[11] For example, the marriage of King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands to Máxima Zorreguieta in 2002 was dynastic, making their eldest child, Princess Catharina-Amalia, the heir apparent to the Crown of the Netherlands. The marriage of his younger brother, Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau, in 2003 lacked government support and parliamentary approval. Thus, Prince Friso forfeited his place in the order of succession to the Dutch throne, and consequently lost his title as a "Prince of the Netherlands", and left his children without dynastic rights.

The Pragmatic Sanction of 1713 was an edict issued by Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI on 19 April 1713 to ensure that the Habsburg monarchy could be inherited by his daughter undivided (see agnatic-cognatic primogeniture).[12] In 1736, Francis Stephen of Lorraine married Archduchess Maria Theresa of Austria, the sole heir of Emperor Charles VI. With the marriage of Maria Theresa, the only offspring of the House of Austria, she became together with her husband the founder of the new dynasty of the House of Habsburg-Lorraine. Since 1740 he was her co-regent in the Habsburg hereditary lands and from 1745 he was Holy Roman Emperor as Francis I, but was hardly involved in government affairs.[13] Francis was as Duke of Lorraine the last non-Habsburg monarch of the Holy Roman Empire. The couple were the founders of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty, which ruled until 1918. Empress Maria Theresa of the Habsburg dynasty had her children married into various European dynasties. Habsburg marriage policy amongst European dynasties led to the Pax Austriaca.[14][15]

Monarchies were based on the idea that power was best kept in families. Hereditary succession reduced the risk associated with a lack of a designated heir.[16]

Longevity

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King Tupou VI of Tonga and Queen Nanasipau'u, head of one of the oldest still ruling royal dynasties in the world, dating back to c. 950 CE of the Tuʻi Tonga Empire

Dynasties lasting at least 200 years include the following.

DynastyYears ruledCorrected length of ruleNotes
Pandyac. 400 BCE – 1618 CEc. 2018 yearsNon-continuous; disappeared from historical record during Kalabhra dynasty rule from around 361–560 CE. Excluding the Kalabhra interlude, the Pandyas ruled for c. 1819 years.[17][18]
Imperial House of Japanc. 500 – presentc. 1,500+ yearsContinuous, mostly ceremonial since 12th century; pre-500 CE emperors semi-legendary, exact start uncertain[19][20][a]
Wessex/England/United Kingdom c. 520 – present c. 1,500 years Non-continuous; deposed in 1066, de facto interregnum 1649–1660; survived through marriages and cadet branches[b]
Guhila / Sisodiac. 525 – 1971c. 1,500 yearsAgnatic dynasty of the Kingdom of Mewar; ceremonial after 1949[23][24]
Cherac. 200 BCE – 1100 CEc. 1,300 yearsEstimation; fragmented early records, gaps likely[25][26]
Velir c. 50–1300; 1400–1751; 1803–1948 c. 1,250 years Non-continuous; independently ruling Malyaman branch ended in 1300 CE[27]; surviving descendant Pari family ceremonial under British paramountcy[28][29] (dynasty ruled for 1,746 years)[30]
Tongac. 950 – presentc. 1,075 yearsEstimation; title changed in 1865, now constitutional[31][32]
Capetian987–present1,038 yearsContinuous through cadet branches (e.g., Bourbon); active in Spain[33]
Bagrationi780–1801c. 1,021 yearsGeorgian royal house; ended with Russian annexation[34]
Silla57 BCE – 935 CE992 yearsKorean kingdom; estimate for early start[35]
Adasidec. 1700 – 722 BCE978 yearsNeo-Assyrian period; estimation[36]
Eastern Ganga498–1434c. 936 yearsOdisha rulers; diminished after 1434[37][38]
Baduspanids665–1598933 yearsRulers of Tabaristan[39]
Cholac. 300 BCE – 200 CE; 848–1279 CEc. 929 yearsNon-continuous; interregnum c. 200–848; early period semi-legendary[40][41]
Borjiginc. 1130–1930c. 800 yearsContinuous through cadet branches (e.g., Taichiud, Tughlugh-Timurids);[42][43] rulers of the Mongol Empire and successor states
Zhou1046–256 BCE790 yearsNominal rule in later Warring States period; traditional dates[44]
Abbasid750–1258, 1261–1517764 yearsNon-continuous; caliphal rule, ceremonial after 1258[45]
Rurikid862–1598736 yearsKievan Rus' to Tsardom of Russia[46]
Sayfawa c. 1085 – 1846 c. 761 years Kanem–Bornu Empire; estimation[47]
Grimaldi1297–present729 yearsReigning Princes of Monaco
Goguryeo37 BCE – 668 CE705 yearsKorean kingdom; well documented[48]
Solomon1270–1975705 yearsEthiopian emperors; restored in 1270[49]
Bavand dynasty651–1349698 yearsRulers of Tabaristan[50]
Kachhwaha1128–1818690 yearsJaipur rajputs; effective rule ended with British control[51][52]
Bolkiahc. 1360 – presentc. 665 yearsSultans of Brunei; estimation for early start[53]
Ottoman1299–1922623 yearsSultans of the eponymous beylik, later empire[54]
Vijaya543 BCE – 66 CE609 yearsSri Lankan kings; traditional dates[55]
Ahom1228–1826598 yearsAssamese kingdom[56]
Oldenburg1448–present577 yearsDanish/Norwegian monarchs; active in Denmark[57]
Rathore1243–1818575 yearsMarwar/Jodhpur rajputs; ended with British control[58][59]
Bohktic. 1330 – 1855c. 525 yearsKurdish principality; adjusted start date[60]
Joseon and Korean Empire1392–1910518 yearsKorean rulers[61]
Habsburg1278–1780502 yearsAgnatic line; all are extinct after the death of Maria Theresa.
Shang 1600–1046 BCE 496 years Chinese royal rulers[62]
Goryeo918–1392474 yearsKorean kingdom[63]
Arsacid247 BCE – 224 CE471 yearsParthian Empire[64]
Nabhani1154–1624470 yearsOmani imams[65]
Han and Shu Han202 BCE – 9 CE, 25–220 CE448 yearsNon-continuous; Chinese emperors[66]
Árpád858–1301443 yearsKings of Hungary[67]
Mataram1586–presentc. 439 yearsIndonesian sultans; estimation for continuity[68]
Přemyslid 870–1306 c. 436 years Czech dukes and kings of Bohemia
Sassanian224–651427 yearsPersian Empire[69]
Davidicc. 1010–586 BCEc. 424 yearsKingdom of Judah; traditional dates[70]
Jafnid220–638418 yearsArab kingdom[71]
Piast960–1370410 yearsDukes and kings of Poland[72]
Argeadc. 700 – 309 BCEc. 391 yearsMacedonian kings; adjusted start[73]
Copán426–810384 yearsMaya city-state[74]
Siri Sanga Bo1220–1597377 yearsKandy kingdom, Sri Lanka[75]
Umayyad661–750, 756–1031364 yearsNon-continuous; caliphs[76]
Yuan and Northern Yuan1271–1635364 yearsMongol China[77]
Komnenos1057–1059, 1081–1185, 1204–1461363 yearsByzantine emperors; non-continuous[78]
Later Lê (Primitive and Revival Lê)1428–1527, 1533–1789355 yearsVietnamese emperors; non-continuous[79]
Estridsen1047–1375, 1387–1412353 yearsKings of Denmark; non-continuous[80]
Aryacakravarti1277–1619342 yearsJaffna kingdom[81]
Lakhmidc. 268–602c. 334 yearsArab kingdom[82]
Stuart1371–1651, 1660–1714334 yearsScottish/British monarchs; de jure continuous[83]
Mughal 1526–1857 331 years Mughal Empire; cadet branch of Timurid dynasty[84][85]
Plantagenet1154–1485331 yearsKings of England[86]
Jiménez905–1234329 yearsMonarchs of Navarre and Aragon[87]
Bendahara1699–presentc. 326 yearsPahang/Malaysia sultans; estimation[88]
Song960–1279319 yearsChinese emperors[89]
Romanov1613–1917304 yearsTsars of Russia[90]
Liao and Western Liao916–1218302 yearsKhitan rulers[91]
Later Jin and Qing1616–1912296 yearsJurchen/Manchu emperors of China[92]
Ming and Southern Ming1368–1662294 yearsChinese emperors[93]
Babenberg962–1246284 yearsDukes of Austria[94]
Ptolemaic305–30 BCE275 yearsFinal (Hellenistic) dynasty of independent Egypt[95]
Tang618–690, 705–907274 yearsChinese emperors; non-continuous[96]
Fatimid909–1171262 yearsCaliphs[97]
Nasrid1230–1492262 yearsEmirs of Granada[98]
Rajasa 1222–1478 256 years Javanese rulers[99]
Thutmosidc. 1550 – c. 1295 BCEc. 255 yearsEighteenth Dynasty of Egyptian pharaohs[100]
Dunkeld1034–1286252 yearsKings of Scotland[101]
Karaman1255-1501246 yearsSultans of eponymous Turkish state
Bubastite c. 945 – c. 715 BCE c. 230 years Twenty-second Dynasty of Egyptian pharaohs[100]
Bubastite c. 945 – c. 715 BCE c. 230 years Twenty-second Dynasty of Egyptian pharaohs[100]
Achaemenid550–330 BCE220 yearsPersian Empire; adjusted start[102][103]
Bernadotte 1818–present 208 years Swedish monarchs; Norwegian monarchs 1818–1905[104]

Extant sovereign dynasties

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There are 43 sovereign states with a monarch as head of state, of which 41 are ruled by dynasties.[c] There are currently 26 sovereign dynasties.

Dynasty Realm Reigning monarch Dynastic founder[d] Dynastic place of origin[e]
Windsor[f][g] Antigua and Barbuda King Charles III King-Emperor George V[h] Thuringia and Bavaria
(in modern Germany)
Commonwealth of Australia[i]
Bahamas
Belize
Canada
Grenada
Jamaica
New Zealand[j]
Papua New Guinea
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Saint Lucia
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
Solomon Islands
Tuvalu
United Kingdom[k]
Khalifa Bahrain King Hamad bin Isa Al Khalifa Sheikh Khalifa bin Mohammed Najd
(in modern Saudi Arabia)
Belgium[l] Belgium King Philippe King Albert I[m] Thuringia and Bavaria
(in modern Germany)
Wangchuck Bhutan Druk Gyalpo Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck Druk Gyalpo Ugyen Wangchuck Trongsa, Bhutan
Bolkiah Brunei Sultan Hassanal Bolkiah Sultan Muhammad Shah Tarim in Hadhramaut[n]
(in modern Yemen)
Norodom[o] Cambodia King Norodom Sihamoni King Norodom Prohmbarirak Cambodia
Glücksburg[p] Denmark[q] King Frederik X Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg Glücksburg
(in modern Germany)
Norway[r] King Harald V
Dlamini Eswatini King Mswati III Chief Dlamini I East Africa
Yamato[s] Japan Emperor Naruhito Emperor Jimmu[t] Nara
(in modern Japan)
Hashim[u] Jordan King Abdullah II King Hussein ibn Ali al-Hashimi Hejaz
(in modern Saudi Arabia)
Sabah Kuwait Emir Mishal Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah Sheikh Sabah I bin Jaber Najd
(in modern Saudi Arabia)
Moshesh Lesotho King Letsie III Paramount Chief Moshoeshoe I Lesotho
Liechtenstein Liechtenstein Prince Hans-Adam II Prince Karl I Lower Austria
(in modern Austria)
Luxembourg-Nassau[v] Luxembourg Grand Duke Guillaume V Grand Duke Adolphe Nassau
(in modern Germany)
Temenggong[w] Malaysia[x] Sultan Ibrahim III Sultan Abu Bakar Johor
(in modern Malaysia)
Grimaldi Monaco Prince Albert II François Grimaldi Genoa
(in modern Italy)
Alawi Morocco King Mohammed VI Sultan Abul Amlak Sidi Muhammad as-Sharif ibn 'Ali Tafilalt
(in modern Morocco)
Orange-Nassau[y]  Netherlands[z] King Willem-Alexander Prince William I Nassau
(in modern Germany)
Busaid Oman Sultan Haitham bin Tariq Sultan Ahmad bin Said al-Busaidi Oman
Thani Qatar Emir Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani Sheikh Thani bin Mohammed Najd
(in modern Saudi Arabia)
Saud Saudi Arabia King Salman bin Abdulaziz Al Saud Emir Saud I Diriyah
(in modern Saudi Arabia)
Bourbon-Anjou[aa] Spain King Felipe VI King Philip V Bourbon-l'Archambault
(in modern France)
Bernadotte Sweden King Carl XVI Gustaf King Charles XIV John Pau
(in modern France)
Chakri Thailand King Vajiralongkorn King Rama I Phra Nakhon Si Ayutthaya
(in modern Thailand)
Tupou Tonga King Tupou VI King George Tupou I Tonga
Nahyan[ab] United Arab Emirates[ac] President Mohamed bin Zayed Al Nahyan Sheikh Dhiyab bin Isa Al Nahyan Liwa Oasis
(in modern United Arab Emirates)

Political families

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Though in elected governments, rule does not pass automatically by inheritance, political power often accrues to generations of related individuals in the elected positions of republics and constitutional monarchies. Eminence, influence, tradition, genetics, and nepotism may contribute to the phenomenon.

Hereditary dictatorship

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Iranian supreme leaders Ali Khamenei (left) and Mojtaba Khamenei (right), are members of the Khamenei family, which has ruled Iran since 1989

Hereditary dictatorships are characterized by the dictator keeping political power within their family due to personal choice.[105] The successor may be groomed during their lifetime, as was the case for Bashar al-Assad and his brother Bassel,[106] or a member of their family may manoeuvre to take control of the dictatorship after the dictator's death, similar to the case of Ramfis Trujillo[107] or Mojtaba Khamenei.

Current hereditary dictatorships
Dynasty Regime Dynastic founder Current leader Year founded[ad] Length of rule
Kim family[108][109] North Korea Kim Il Sung Kim Jong Un 1946 78 years, 278 days
Gnassingbé family[110] Togo Gnassingbé Eyadéma Faure Gnassingbé 1967 59 years, 213 days
Bongo family[111][112] Gabon Omar Bongo Brice Oligui Nguema[ae] 1967 58 years, 350 days
Nguema family[113][114] Equatorial Guinea Francisco Macías Nguema Teodoro Obiang Nguema Mbasogo 1968 58 years, 32 days
Gouled-Guelleh family[113] Djibouti Hassan Gouled Aptidon Ismaïl Omar Guelleh 1977 49 years, 139 days
Hun family[115][116][117] Cambodia Hun Sen Hun Manet 1985 41 years, 303 days
Khamenei family[118] Iran Ali Khamenei Mojtaba Khamenei 1989 37 years, 162 days
Déby family[119] Chad Idriss Déby Mahamat Déby 1991 35 years, 258 days
Aliyev family[120] Azerbaijan Heydar Aliyev Ilham Aliyev 1993 33 years, 142 days
Berdimuhamedow family[121] Turkmenistan Gurbanguly Berdimuhamedow Serdar Berdimuhamedow 2006 19 years, 327 days
Former hereditary dictatorships
Dynasty Regime Dynastic founder Last leader Year founded Year ended Length of rule
Cromwell family Great Britain Oliver Cromwell Richard Cromwell 1653 1659 5 years, 150 days
López family[122] Paraguay Carlos Antonio López Francisco Solano López 1844 1870 25 years, 293 days
Rana family   Nepal Jung Bahadur Rana Mohan Shumsher Jung Bahadur Rana 1846 1951 105 years, 58 days
Meléndez–Quiñónez family El Salvador Carlos Meléndez Alfonso Quiñónez Molina 1913 1927 14 years, 20 days
Chiang family[af] Taiwan[ag] Chiang Kai-shek Chiang Ching-kuo 1928 1988 59 years, 95 days
Trujillo family  Dominican Republic Rafael Trujillo Ramfis Trujillo 1930 1961 31 years, 93 days
Somoza family[123] Nicaragua Anastasio Somoza García Anastasio Somoza Debayle 1936 1979 43 years, 39 days
Duvalier family Haiti François Duvalier Jean-Claude Duvalier 1957 1986 28 years, 108 days
Castro family Cuba Fidel Castro Raul Castro 1959 2021 62 years, 62 days
Arif family Iraq Abdul Salam Arif Abdul Rahman Arif 1963 1968 5 years, 160 days
Assad family[124][125]  Syria Hafez al-Assad Bashar al-Assad 1971 2024 53 years, 269 days
Bagaza-Buyoya family Burundi Jean-Baptiste Bagaza Pierre Buyoya 1976 1993 16 years, 251 days
Kabila family DR Congo Laurent-Désiré Kabila Joseph Kabila 1997 2019 21 years, 252 days

See also

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Notes

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  1. ↑ Emperor Jimmu is said to have founded the kingdom of Yamato in the year 660 BCE, but this is a much later tradition. In fact, the first Japanese written records date to the 8th century CE, over a thousand years later (see Kojiki and Nihon Shoki). The first attested emperor is Yūryaku, who lived c. 500 CE. He is attested in the Inariyama and Eta Funayama Swords, both made during reign of "the Great king Waka Takiru" (Wakatakeru). The first sword is dated to the "Year of the Metal Pig", which could mean 471 or 534.[21]
  2. ↑ Cerdic of Wessex is ultimately the ancestor of all English and British monarchs, since Henry I's wife, Margaret, was a granddaughter of Edward the Exile (see Family tree of English monarchs).[22]
  3. ↑ Existing sovereign entities ruled by non-dynastic monarchs include:
  4. ↑ The founder of a dynasty need not necessarily equate to the first monarch of a particular realm. For example, while William I was the dynastic founder of the House of Orange-Nassau, which currently rules over the Kingdom of the Netherlands, he was never a monarch of the Kingdom of the Netherlands.
  5. ↑ Not to be confused with dynastic seat.
  6. ↑ The House of Windsor is descended from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, which is a branch of the House of Wettin. The dynastic name was changed from "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "Windsor" in 1917.
  7. ↑ A sovereign state with Charles III as its monarch and head of state is known as a Commonwealth realm.
  8. ↑ George V was formerly a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha before 1917.
  9. ↑ Including:
  10. ↑ The Realm of New Zealand consists of:
  11. ↑ Including: The crown dependencies of the Bailiwick of Guernsey, the Bailiwick of Jersey, and the Isle of Man are neither part of the United Kingdom nor British overseas territories.
  12. ↑ The House of Belgium is descended from the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, which is a branch of the House of Wettin. The dynastic name was changed from "Saxe-Coburg and Gotha" to "Belgium" in 1920.
  13. ↑ Albert I was formerly a member of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha before 1920.
  14. ↑ Claimed by the royal house, but the historicity is questionable.
  15. ↑ The House of Norodom is a branch of the Varman dynasty.
  16. ↑ The House of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg is a branch of the House of Oldenburg.
  17. ↑ The Danish Realm consists of:
  18. ↑ Including:
  19. ↑ The Imperial House of Japan, or Kōshitsu (皇室), is the world's oldest continuous dynasty. The dynasty has produced an unbroken succession of Japanese monarchs since the legendary founding year of 660 BCE.
  20. ↑ Most historians regard Emperor Jimmu to have been a mythical ruler. Emperor Ōjin, traditionally considered the 15th emperor, is the first who is generally thought to have existed, while Emperor Kinmei, the 29th emperor according to traditional historiography, is the first monarch for whom verifiable regnal dates can be assigned.
  21. ↑ The House of Hashim is descended from Banu Qatada, which was a branch of the House of Ali.
  22. ↑ The House of Luxembourg-Nassau is descended from the House of Nassau-Weilburg, which is a branch of the House of Nassau and the House of Bourbon-Parma.
  23. ↑ The Temenggong dynasty is the ruling dynasty of Johor and a cadet branch of the Bendahara dynasty. The Sultan of Johor is the reigning Yang di-Pertuan Agong of Malaysia.
  24. ↑ The throne of Malaysia rotates among the nine constituent monarchies of Malaysia, each ruled by a dynasty. The Yang di-Pertuan Agong is elected by the Conference of Rulers.
  25. ↑ The House of Orange-Nassau is a branch of the House of Nassau. Additionally, Willem-Alexander is also linked to the House of Lippe through Beatrix of the Netherlands.
  26. ↑ The Kingdom of the Netherlands consists of:
  27. ↑ The House of Bourbon-Anjou is a branch of the House of Bourbon.
  28. ↑ The House of Nahyan is the ruling dynasty of the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. The Emir of Abu Dhabi is the incumbent President of the United Arab Emirates.
  29. ↑ The President of the United Arab Emirates is elected by the Federal Supreme Council. The office has been held by the Emir of Abu Dhabi since the formation of the United Arab Emirates in 1971.
  30. ↑ Year authoritarian system began
  31. ↑ maternal cousin of Ali Bongo
  32. ↑ Chiang Kai-shek position was briefly occupied by Li Zongren between 1949 and 1950, his son, Chiang Ching-kuo served as his premier in 1972 until his death in 1975, Chiang Ching-kuo would later took the presidency of Yen Chia-kan after both finished serving their terms as President and Premier
  33. ↑ Taiwan between 1949 and 1988.

Further reading

[edit]

References

[edit]
  1. ↑ English Dictionary, 1st ed. "dynasty, n." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 1897.
  2. ↑ Duindam, Jeroen (24 October 2019). Dynasty: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-253674-7.
  3. ↑ "Political Dynasties: An American Tradition".
  4. ↑ Duindam, Jeroen (24 October 2019). Dynasty: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-253674-7.
  5. ↑ Harper, Douglas. "dynasty". Online Etymology Dictionary.
  6. ↑ Duindam, Jeroen (24 October 2019). Dynasty: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-253674-7.
  7. ↑ Oxford English Dictionary, 3rd ed. "house, n.1 and int, 10. b." Oxford University Press (Oxford), 2011.
  8. ↑ "Dynast". 12 October 2026.
  9. 1 2 Statement by Nick Clegg MP, UK parliament website Archived 5 July 2016 at the Wayback Machine, 26 March 2015 (retrieved on same date).
  10. ↑ "Monaco royal taken seriously ill". BBC News. London. 8 April 2005. Archived from the original on 12 March 2010. Retrieved 27 January 2013.
  11. ↑ "The Dynastic Marriage". European History Online (in German). Leibniz Institute of European History. Archived from the original on 28 February 2023. Retrieved 28 February 2023.
  12. ↑ "Pragmatic Sanction of Emperor Charles VI". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 3 May 2015. Retrieved 21 September 2025.
  13. ↑ Mutschlechner, Martin. "Franz Stephan as the founder of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty". The World of the Habsburgs. Archived from the original on 3 September 2025. Retrieved 21 September 2025.
  14. ↑ Mutschlechner, Martin. "Maria Theresa as wife and mother". The World of the Habsburgs. Archived from the original on 7 November 2025. Retrieved 2 November 2025.
  15. ↑ Mitchell, A. Wess (2019). The Grand Strategy of the Habsburg Empire. Princeton University Press. p. 228. ISBN 978-0-691-19644-2.
  16. ↑ Thomson, David (1961). "The Institutions of Monarchy". Europe Since Napoleon. New York: Knopf. pp. 79–80. The basic idea of monarchy was the idea that hereditary right gave the best title to political power ... The dangers of disputed succession were best avoided by hereditary succession: ruling families had a natural interest in passing on to their descendants enhanced power and prestige ... Frederick the Great of Prussia, Catherine the Great of Russia, and Maria Theresa of Austria were alike infatuated with the idea of strengthening their power, centralizing government in their own hands as against local and feudal privileges, and so acquiring more absolute authority in the state. Moreover, the very dynastic rivalries and conflicts between these eighteenth-century monarchs drove them to look for ever more efficient methods of government
  17. ↑ Harman, William P. (1992). The sacred marriage of a Hindu goddess. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 30–36. ISBN 978-81-208-0810-2.
  18. ↑ Iyer, Sathyanatha (1924). History of the Nayaks of Madura. pp. 130–140.
  19. ↑ Brown, Delmer M. (1993). The Cambridge History of Japan. Vol. 1: Ancient Japan. Cambridge University Press. pp. 140–145. ISBN 978-0521223522.
  20. ↑ Ponsonby-Fane, Richard (1915). The Imperial House of Japan. Ponsonby Memorial Society. pp. 10–20.
  21. ↑ Seeley, Christopher (1991). A History of Writing in Japan. Brill. pp. 19–23. ISBN 90-04-09081-9.
  22. ↑ McCalman, Archibald Hamilton (1883). A Compact History of England from the Time of the Ancient Britons to the Reign of Queen Victoria (1880): With a Synopsis of England in the Nineteenth Century, Its Government, Institutions, Etc (book review). R. Wrothington. p. 669.
  23. ↑ Somani, Ram Vallabh (1976). History of Mewar: from earliest times to 1751 A.D. Jaipur: C. L. Ranka. p. 34.
  24. ↑ "The Constitution (26th Amendment) Act, 1971". India Code. Government of India. 1971. Archived from the original on 6 December 2011. Retrieved 9 November 2011.
  25. ↑ Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2016). A History of India. Routledge. pp. 100–120. ISBN 978-1138961159.
  26. ↑ Narayanan, M. G. S. (2013). Perumals of Kerala. Thrissur: CosmoBooks. pp. 50–60. ISBN 978-8188765072.
  27. ↑ South Indian Inscriptions vol.3; pt.3 and pt.4. 1987.
  28. ↑ Lethbridge, Roper (1893). The golden book of India, a genealogical and biographical dictionary of the ruling princes, chiefs, nobles, and other personages, titled or decorated, of the Indian empire. Robarts - University of Toronto. London Macmillan.
  29. ↑ Graham Astor, Lydia (2011). Zamins of South India (PDF).
  30. ↑ Subramaniam, N. (1962). History Of Tamilnad.
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